GO:0006081 aldehyde metabolic process: Detoxification Pathway, Genes, Functions and Research Methods
Research-grade guide for scientists and biopharma professionals
Key Takeaways
• GO:0006081 aldehyde metabolic process describes the chemical reactions and pathways involving aldehydes (R-CH=O) carried out by individual cells.
• Aldehydes are highly reactive electrophiles that can form adducts with DNA and proteins, making their controlled metabolism essential for genome stability.
• Key enzymes include aldehyde dehydrogenases (ALDHs), aldehyde reductases (AKRs), and carboxylic acid reductases (CARs), which convert aldehydes to less toxic acids or alcohols.
• Dysregulated aldehyde metabolism is linked to cancer, Sjogren-Larsson syndrome, and benzene-induced hematotoxicity.
• CRISPR knockout, point-mutation, and knock-in models are powerful tools to dissect the causal roles of aldehyde-metabolizing genes in disease.
• EDITGENE provides custom cell models and CRISPR library screening to accelerate research on aldehyde metabolic process genes.
Description
Aldehydes are organic compounds containing a carbonyl group (R-CH=O) and are generated endogenously through lipid peroxidation, amino acid metabolism, and xenobiotic biotransformation. The Gene Ontology term GO:0006081, aldehyde metabolic process, encompasses all cellular chemical reactions and pathways that transform aldehydes, including their oxidation, reduction, and conjugation. This process is critical because many aldehydes are cytotoxic and genotoxic, forming adducts with DNA and proteins that can lead to mutations and cell death. Consequently, cells have evolved sophisticated enzymatic systems to detoxify aldehydes and maintain metabolic homeostasis. Research into aldehyde metabolic process has revealed its broad importance in human health and disease. For example, defects in aldehyde dehydrogenase enzymes cause Sjogren-Larsson syndrome, a neurocutaneous disorder characterized by hypermelanosis and neurological impairment. In cancer, aldehyde detoxification pathways are often upregulated to protect cancer cells from oxidative stress and chemotherapy-induced aldehydes. Moreover, exposure to environmental aldehydes such as trans,trans-muconaldehyde, a benzene metabolite, can overwhelm detoxification systems and cause hematotoxicity. Understanding the genes and mechanisms of aldehyde metabolism is therefore essential for developing targeted therapies and diagnostic tools. This article provides a comprehensive overview of GO:0006081, integrating authoritative QuickGO definitions with real PubMed literature. We cover the definition, biological significance, key genes, regulatory mechanisms, disease associations, and cutting-edge research methods including CRISPR-based models. By synthesizing this information, we aim to support researchers in designing experiments and interpreting data related to aldehyde metabolic process.
aldehyde metabolic process At A Glance
| GO ID | GO:0006081 |
|---|---|
| GO term | aldehyde metabolic process |
| Ontology | biological_process |
| Synonym | aldehyde metabolism, alkanal metabolic process, alkanal metabolism |
| Major function | Detoxification and interconversion of aldehydes to less reactive metabolites |
| Key enzymes | Aldehyde dehydrogenases (ALDHs), aldehyde reductases (AKRs), carboxylic acid reductases (CARs) |
| Cellular location | Cytoplasm, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum |
| Associated diseases | Cancer, Sjogren-Larsson syndrome, benzene-induced hematotoxicity |
| Research methods | CRISPR knockout, point mutation, knock-in, overexpression, metabolomics, enzyme assays |
What Is GO:0006081?
According to the Gene Ontology, aldehyde metabolic process (GO:0006081) is defined as the chemical reactions and pathways involving aldehydes, any organic compound with the formula R-CH=O, as carried out by individual cells. This includes the synthesis, modification, and breakdown of aldehydes, as well as their interconversion with other metabolites. The term is synonymous with aldehyde metabolism, alkanal metabolic process, and alkanal metabolism. It is a biological process that occurs in all cellular organisms and is essential for detoxification, energy production, and biosynthesis.
Why Is aldehyde metabolic process Important in Cell Biology?
Aldehyde metabolic process is fundamentally important because aldehydes are highly reactive molecules that can damage DNA, proteins, and lipids, leading to cellular dysfunction and disease. Cells must tightly regulate aldehyde levels to prevent genotoxicity and maintain redox balance. This process also plays a role in normal physiology, such as in the metabolism of neurotransmitters, vitamins, and lipids. Dysregulation of aldehyde metabolism is implicated in a wide range of pathologies, including cancer, neurodegeneration, and metabolic disorders. Therefore, understanding the genes and pathways involved is critical for developing therapeutic interventions and biomarkers.
• Protects cells from genotoxic and cytotoxic aldehydes generated by lipid peroxidation and xenobiotic metabolism.
• Maintains redox homeostasis by converting reactive aldehydes to less reactive acids or alcohols.
• Plays a role in the metabolism of bioactive lipids and neurotransmitters.
• Defects in aldehyde metabolism cause Sjogren-Larsson syndrome, a neurocutaneous disorder.
• Upregulated in many cancers to support proliferation and chemoresistance.
• Involved in benzene-induced hematotoxicity through metabolites like trans,trans-muconaldehyde.
• Provides targets for metabolic engineering of carboxylic acid reductases.
• Enables the study of enzyme multi-specificity and inhibition.
• Contributes to the understanding of UDP-glucose dehydrogenase and related pathways.
• Offers opportunities for CRISPR-based functional genomics and drug discovery.
What Happens During aldehyde metabolic process?
Oxidation of Aldehydes to Carboxylic Acids
In simple terms: Aldehydes are converted into acids, which are less reactive and easier to excrete.
The primary route of aldehyde detoxification is oxidation to the corresponding carboxylic acid, catalyzed by aldehyde dehydrogenases (ALDHs). This reaction uses NAD(P)+ as a cofactor and generates NAD(P)H. For example, purified yeast aldehyde dehydrogenase can oxidize trans,trans-muconaldehyde, a hematotoxic benzene metabolite, to less toxic products. In metabolic engineering, carboxylic acid reductases (CARs) catalyze the reverse reaction, reducing carboxylic acids to aldehydes, which is valuable for producing aldehyde intermediates. The catalytic mechanism of UDP-glucose dehydrogenase, which involves aldehyde intermediates, has been studied to understand similar oxidation steps.
Reduction of Aldehydes to Alcohols
In simple terms: Aldehydes can also be turned into alcohols, another way to reduce their reactivity.
Aldehyde reductases (AKRs) catalyze the NADPH-dependent reduction of aldehydes to primary alcohols. This pathway is particularly important for detoxifying lipid peroxidation products such as 4-hydroxynonenal. The multi-specificity of these enzymes allows them to act on a broad range of substrates, but also makes them targets for differential inhibition. In some cases, reduction can be a minor route compared to oxidation, but it becomes critical when ALDH activity is compromised.
Conjugation and Secondary Metabolism
In simple terms: Aldehydes can be attached to other molecules, like glutathione, to make them safer.
Aldehydes can undergo conjugation with glutathione, either spontaneously or enzymatically, forming less toxic adducts that are excreted. Additionally, aldehydes can be modified into bioactive lipids, such as aldehyde-modified phosphatidylethanolamines, which have signaling roles. These secondary metabolic pathways expand the functional repertoire of aldehyde metabolism beyond simple detoxification.
Regulation of Aldehyde Levels by Compartmentalization
In simple terms: Different parts of the cell handle aldehydes separately to keep them under control.
Aldehyde metabolism is compartmentalized: mitochondria contain ALDH2, which oxidizes acetaldehyde; the cytoplasm has ALDH1A1 and AKRs; and the endoplasmic reticulum participates in lipid aldehyde metabolism. This spatial organization ensures efficient detoxification and prevents the accumulation of reactive aldehydes near sensitive targets like DNA. Disruption of compartmentalization can lead to disease, as seen in Sjogren-Larsson syndrome where mutations in fatty aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH3A2) impair the oxidation of fatty aldehydes in the endoplasmic reticulum.
Role of Aldehyde Metabolism in One-Carbon Metabolism
In simple terms: Aldehydes are also involved in building blocks for DNA and amino acids.
Formaldehyde, a simple aldehyde, is generated during one-carbon metabolism and can be detoxified by alcohol dehydrogenase 5 (ADH5) and ALDH2. This pathway intersects with folate and methionine cycles, linking aldehyde metabolism to nucleotide synthesis and methylation reactions. Dysregulation can lead to DNA damage and is implicated in cancer and aging.
Key Genes Involved in GO:0006081 aldehyde metabolic process
The following genes encode enzymes and proteins directly involved in aldehyde metabolic process, as supported by published literature.
| Gene | Major Role | Research Relevance |
|---|---|---|
| ALDH1A1 | Cytosolic aldehyde dehydrogenase; oxidizes retinaldehyde and other aldehydes | Cancer stem cell marker; drug resistance |
| ALDH2 | Mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase; oxidizes acetaldehyde | Alcohol metabolism; cardiovascular disease |
| ALDH3A2 | Fatty aldehyde dehydrogenase; oxidizes fatty aldehydes | Sjogren-Larsson syndrome |
| AKR1A1 | Aldehyde reductase; reduces aldehydes to alcohols | Detoxification of lipid peroxidation products |
| AKR1B1 | Aldose reductase; reduces glucose and aldehydes | Diabetic complications; cancer |
| ADH5 | Alcohol dehydrogenase 5; oxidizes formaldehyde | Formaldehyde detoxification; DNA repair |
| ADH1B | Alcohol dehydrogenase 1B; oxidizes ethanol to acetaldehyde | Alcohol metabolism; cancer risk |
| CAR (various) | Carboxylic acid reductase; reduces acids to aldehydes | Metabolic engineering |
| UGDH | UDP-glucose dehydrogenase; oxidizes UDP-glucose via aldehyde intermediate | Glycosaminoglycan synthesis |
| GAPDH | Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase; glycolytic enzyme with aldehyde intermediate | Glycolysis; oxidative stress |
| ALDH7A1 | Antiquitin; oxidizes alpha-aminoadipic semialdehyde | Pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy |
| ALDH4A1 | Pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase; oxidizes glutamate semialdehyde | Proline metabolism |
| ALDH5A1 | Succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase | GABA metabolism; neurological disorders |
| ALDH6A1 | Methylmalonate semialdehyde dehydrogenase | Valine and pyrimidine metabolism |
| ALDH9A1 | Gamma-aminobutyraldehyde dehydrogenase | Polyamine metabolism |
| ALDH16A1 | Aldehyde dehydrogenase 16 family member A1 | Gout; kidney disease |
| ALDH18A1 | Delta-1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate synthase | Proline biosynthesis; neuropathy |
How Is aldehyde metabolic process Regulated?
Aldehyde metabolic process is regulated at multiple levels. Transcriptionally, the expression of ALDH genes can be induced by oxidative stress via the Nrf2/ARE pathway, which upregulates detoxification enzymes. Post-translationally, ALDH activity can be modulated by phosphorylation and acetylation, although specific sites are still being investigated. Additionally, the availability of cofactors NAD+ and NADPH influences flux through oxidation and reduction pathways. In cancer, aldehyde metabolism is often hijacked to support proliferation and survival, with ALDH1A1 and ALDH3A1 serving as markers of cancer stem cells. The multi-specific nature of enzymes like AKRs also allows for differential regulation by endogenous inhibitors. Overall, regulation ensures that aldehydes are kept at subtoxic levels while allowing their use in biosynthesis.
aldehyde metabolic process and Human Disease
| Gene | Disease / Biology | Potential Experimental Model |
|---|---|---|
| ALDH3A2 | Sjogren-Larsson syndrome | Knockout mice or patient-derived iPSCs with point mutations |
| ALDH1A1 | Cancer stem cell maintenance and chemoresistance | CRISPR knockout in cancer cell lines; overexpression |
| ALDH2 | Alcohol-related diseases and cardiovascular risk | Knock-in mice with ALDH2*2 variant |
| ADH5 | Formaldehyde-induced DNA damage and cancer | Knockout cell lines and mouse models |
| ALDH7A1 | Pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy | Knockout zebrafish or mouse models |
Aldehyde Metabolism in Cancer
Cancer cells often exhibit upregulated aldehyde detoxification to cope with increased oxidative stress and to resist chemotherapy. ALDH1A1 and ALDH3A1 are associated with cancer stem cell phenotypes and poor prognosis in multiple malignancies. Inhibiting these enzymes sensitizes cancer cells to aldehydes and chemotherapeutic agents, making them attractive therapeutic targets. Furthermore, aldehydes generated by lipid peroxidation can drive mutagenesis, and efficient detoxification prevents accumulation of mutations that fuel tumor progression.
Sjogren-Larsson Syndrome and Fatty Aldehyde Metabolism
Sjogren-Larsson syndrome is an autosomal recessive neurocutaneous disorder caused by mutations in ALDH3A2, which encodes fatty aldehyde dehydrogenase. This enzyme oxidizes fatty aldehydes derived from lipid metabolism; its deficiency leads to accumulation of fatty aldehydes and alcohols, causing ichthyosis, spasticity, and hypermelanosis. The hypermelanosis observed in patients may result from aldehyde-induced melanocyte stimulation or oxidative stress. This disorder highlights the critical role of aldehyde metabolism in skin and nervous system function.
Benzene-Induced Hematotoxicity and Aldehyde Metabolites
Benzene is a known hematotoxicant that requires metabolic activation to reactive aldehydes such as trans,trans-muconaldehyde. This metabolite can be detoxified by aldehyde dehydrogenases, but when detoxification is overwhelmed, it forms adducts with DNA and proteins, leading to bone marrow suppression and leukemia. Studies using purified yeast aldehyde dehydrogenase and mouse liver fractions have elucidated the metabolic pathways involved, providing insights into individual susceptibility to benzene toxicity.
Aldehyde Metabolism in Neurodegeneration
Aldehydes such as 4-hydroxynonenal accumulate in neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's, where they contribute to protein aggregation and neuronal death. Impaired aldehyde detoxification exacerbates oxidative stress and neuroinflammation. Enhancing aldehyde dehydrogenase activity or reducing aldehyde load is being explored as a therapeutic strategy.
From aldehyde metabolic process-Related Genes to Experimental Models
| Research Question | Suitable Model |
|---|---|
| Does loss of ALDH3A2 cause fatty aldehyde accumulation? | CRISPR knockout of ALDH3A2 in HepG2 or fibroblasts |
| Can a point mutation in ALDH2 alter acetaldehyde clearance? | Knock-in of ALDH2*2 in HEK293 cells |
| Does overexpression of ALDH1A1 confer chemoresistance? | Overexpression of ALDH1A1 in breast cancer cells |
| What is the subcellular localization of AKR1A1? | Tagged knock-in of AKR1A1 with GFP |
| Can CRISPR library screening identify new aldehyde detoxification genes? | Genome-wide knockout library in cancer cells treated with aldehydes |
| Does ALDH7A1 deficiency affect lysine metabolism? | Knockout of ALDH7A1 in patient fibroblasts |
How to Study the aldehyde metabolic process Process
| Method | What It Measures | Typical Application |
|---|---|---|
| LC-MS/MS metabolomics | Aldehyde and metabolite levels | Quantifying aldehyde accumulation in knockout cells |
| NADH/NADPH absorbance assay | Enzyme activity | Kinetic characterization of ALDHs and AKRs |
| CRISPR knockout screening | Gene essentiality and resistance | Identifying aldehyde sensitivity genes |
| RNA-seq | Transcriptional changes | Profiling Nrf2 target genes |
| Western blot | Protein expression | Validating ALDH overexpression or knockout |
| Immunofluorescence | Subcellular localization | Visualizing tagged aldehyde enzymes |
| Flow cytometry | Aldehyde-induced DNA damage | Measuring gamma-H2AX after aldehyde exposure |
| Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay | Protein adducts | Detecting aldehyde-protein conjugates |
Metabolomics and Aldehyde Quantification
Mass spectrometry-based metabolomics allows direct measurement of aldehyde levels and their metabolites in cells and tissues. Derivatization with reagents like DNPH enhances detection sensitivity. This method is used to assess the impact of gene knockouts or drug treatments on aldehyde flux.
Enzyme Activity Assays
Aldehyde dehydrogenase and reductase activities are measured spectrophotometrically by monitoring NAD(P)H production or consumption at 340 nm. These assays are used to characterize enzyme kinetics and inhibition, as demonstrated for multi-specific enzymes. Purified enzymes or cell lysates can be used.
CRISPR Screening and Functional Genomics
Genome-wide CRISPR knockout or activation screens can identify genes that modulate sensitivity to aldehydes. Cells are treated with aldehydes or aldehyde-generating compounds, and sgRNA enrichment is analyzed by next-generation sequencing. This approach has uncovered novel aldehyde detoxification pathways.
Transcriptomics and Proteomics
RNA-seq and quantitative proteomics reveal changes in expression of aldehyde-metabolizing enzymes under stress conditions. These methods help identify regulatory networks and biomarkers. For example, Nrf2 target genes are induced upon aldehyde exposure.
How CRISPR Can Be Used to Study GO:0006081 aldehyde metabolic process
Knockout
CRISPR knockout of aldehyde-metabolizing genes such as ALDH3A2 or ADH5 allows researchers to study the consequences of loss of function. For example, ALDH3A2 knockout cells accumulate fatty aldehydes and show increased oxidative stress, modeling Sjogren-Larsson syndrome. Knockout of ADH5 sensitizes cells to formaldehyde-induced DNA damage. These models are invaluable for dissecting detoxification pathways and identifying compensatory mechanisms.
Point Mutation
Introducing disease-associated point mutations, such as ALDH2*2 (E487K), via CRISPR base editing or homology-directed repair recapitulates human phenotypes in cell models. These models help understand how specific mutations affect enzyme activity and substrate specificity. For example, the ALDH2*2 variant reduces acetaldehyde oxidation and is linked to alcohol flushing and cancer risk.
Knock-in
Knock-in of tagged versions of aldehyde enzymes (e.g., GFP-ALDH1A1) enables live-cell imaging and proteomic analysis. Knock-in of reporter genes under the control of ALDH promoters can be used to screen for modulators of expression. Additionally, knock-in of human orthologs into mouse models facilitates in vivo studies.
Overexpression
CRISPR activation (CRISPRa) or lentiviral overexpression of aldehyde dehydrogenases like ALDH1A1 can model the upregulation observed in cancer. Overexpression studies reveal effects on drug resistance, stemness, and aldehyde clearance. Conversely, overexpression of mutant enzymes can act as dominant negatives.
How EDITGENE Supports aldehyde metabolic process Research
Researchers studying aldehyde metabolic process-related genes often need to determine whether a candidate gene is causally involved in detoxification, disease progression, or drug response. EDITGENE provides a comprehensive suite of CRISPR-based services to create precise cell models, enabling functional validation and mechanistic studies.
Contact EDITGENE today to design your custom CRISPR model for aldehyde metabolic process research.
Related Products
| Product name | Cat.No. | Species | Gene ID | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ALDH1A1 Knockout HEK293 Cell Line | EDJ-KQ2024 | Human | 216 | Details Get a Quote |
| ADH4 Knockout HEK293 Cell Line | EDJ-KQ2163 | Human | 127 | Details Get a Quote |
| ALDH3B2 Knockout HEK293 Cell Line | EDJ-KQ2545 | Human | 222 | Details Get a Quote |
| ALDH3A1 Knockout HEK293 Cell Line | EDJ-KQ3442 | Human | 218 | Details Get a Quote |
| ALDH1A3 Knockout HEK293 Cell Line | EDJ-KQ4033 | Human | 220 | Details Get a Quote |
| ALDH1B1 Knockout HEK293 Cell Line | EDJ-KQ4035 | Human | 219 | Details Get a Quote |
| ALDH9A1 Knockout HEK293 Cell Line | EDJ-KQ4037 | Human | 223 | Details Get a Quote |
| ALDH3B1 Knockout HEK293 Cell Line | EDJ-KQ4039 | Human | 221 | Details Get a Quote |
| ALDH3A2 Knockout HEK293 Cell Line | EDJ-KQ4041 | Human | 224 | Details Get a Quote |
| ALDH7A1 Knockout HEK293 Cell Line | EDJ-KQ4111 | Human | 501 | Details Get a Quote |
| AKR7A2 Knockout HEK293 Cell Line | EDJ-KQ5600 | Human | 8574 | Details Get a Quote |
| ALDH1A2 Knockout HEK293 Cell Line | EDJ-KQ6383 | Human | 8854 | Details Get a Quote |
| ALDH1L1 Knockout HEK293 Cell Line | EDJ-KQ7186 | Human | 10840 | Details Get a Quote |
| AKR7A3 Knockout HEK293 Cell Line | EDJ-KQ7760 | Human | 22977 | Details Get a Quote |
| ALDH16A1 Knockout HEK293 Cell Line | EDJ-KQ8862 | Human | 126133 | Details Get a Quote |
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Frequently Asked Questions About aldehyde metabolic process
What is aldehyde metabolic process?
Aldehyde metabolic process (GO:0006081) is the set of chemical reactions and pathways that involve aldehydes (R-CH=O) in cells, including their oxidation, reduction, and conjugation to less toxic metabolites.
What genes are involved in aldehyde metabolic process?
Key genes include ALDH1A1, ALDH2, ALDH3A2, AKR1A1, AKR1B1, ADH5, and ADH1B, which encode enzymes that detoxify or interconvert aldehydes.
Why is aldehyde metabolism important for health?
It protects cells from genotoxic and cytotoxic aldehydes, maintains redox balance, and prevents diseases such as cancer, Sjogren-Larsson syndrome, and neurodegeneration.
What diseases are linked to aldehyde metabolism defects?
Defects are associated with Sjogren-Larsson syndrome, cancer, benzene-induced hematotoxicity, and pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy.
How can I study aldehyde metabolic process in the lab?
Common methods include CRISPR knockout/knock-in, metabolomics, enzyme activity assays, and CRISPR screening.
What is the role of ALDH3A2 in disease?
ALDH3A2 encodes fatty aldehyde dehydrogenase; mutations cause Sjogren-Larsson syndrome, characterized by ichthyosis, spasticity, and hypermelanosis.
Can CRISPR be used to model aldehyde metabolism disorders?
Yes, CRISPR knockout or point mutation of genes like ALDH3A2 or ALDH2 creates cellular models that recapitulate disease phenotypes.
What are the substrates of aldehyde dehydrogenases?
ALDHs oxidize a wide range of aldehydes, including acetaldehyde, retinaldehyde, and fatty aldehydes, using NAD(P)+ as a cofactor.
How does aldehyde metabolism affect cancer treatment?
Upregulated aldehyde detoxification in cancer cells contributes to chemoresistance; inhibiting ALDHs can sensitize tumors to therapy.
What services does EDITGENE offer for aldehyde metabolism research?
EDITGENE provides CRISPR knockout, point mutation, knock-in, overexpression, library screening, and bioinformatics services to study aldehyde metabolic genes.
Conclusion
Aldehyde metabolic process (GO:0006081) is a fundamental cellular pathway that protects against reactive aldehydes and maintains metabolic homeostasis. Its dysregulation is implicated in a spectrum of diseases, from cancer to rare genetic disorders like Sjogren-Larsson syndrome. Advances in CRISPR-based models and metabolomics are accelerating our understanding of the genes and mechanisms involved. EDITGENE's comprehensive services empower researchers to create precise cell models and uncover new therapeutic targets in aldehyde metabolism.
References
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- 2. Guo L et al.. 2013. Bioactive aldehyde-modified phosphatidylethanolamines.. Biochimie 95(1):74-8 PMID: 22819995
- 3. Butler N et al.. 2020. Carboxylic acid reductases in metabolic engineering.. J Biotechnol 307:1-14 PMID: 31628973
- 4. Eckl PM et al.. 2017. Genotoxicity of lipid oxidation compounds.. Free Radic Biol Med 111:244-252 PMID: 28167130
- 5. Cappiello M et al.. 2020. Intra-site differential inhibition of multi-specific enzymes.. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 35(1):840-846 PMID: 32208768
- 6. James BT et al.. 2026. Aldehyde Detoxification in Cancer: Metabolic Guardians of the Genome.. Biomolecules 16(7) PMID: 42509785
- 7. Kirley TA et al.. 1989. Metabolism of trans, trans-muconaldehyde, a microsomal hematotoxic metabolite of benzene, by purified yeast aldehyde dehydrogenase and a mouse liver soluble fraction.. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 100(2):360-7 PMID: 2781563
- 8. Xu YC et al.. 2020. Sjogren-Larsson syndrome associated hypermelanosis.. J Cosmet Dermatol 19(4):789-798 PMID: 31697031
